Shedding Some Light On The Dark Ages

   After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5^th century came what is known as the Medieval Period, or the 'Middle Ages'. It acted as the bridge between Antiquity, and the Modern era. This time in history is also referred to as the 'Dark Ages'. Despite its nomenclature, not everything was doom and gloom, as little rays of light shone through with several unique art styles, with their own distinct forms that shared some subtle connections with the past.

   The Byzantine Period was the earliest, and was based around the remains of the Roman Empire to the east, in countries such as Greece and Turkey, where the new Byzantine Empire was formed. The Empire's capital city of Constantinople (named after Constantine the Great, from its former name of Byzantium), was the heart of the Byzantine Empire, and was a cultured and prosperous trade centre. Built during this era, the Hagia Sofia still retains many of the mosaics of the time, which can be marvelled at and enjoyed by the present day visitor.

Court of Theodora, Apse Mosaic, San Vitale, Ravenna, c. 547

   Starting around the 11^th century, began the artistic period known as 'Romanesque'. The term referred to the influence of older Roman traditions which inspired the style. During the Romanesque period, a strong Byzantine influence could still be seen in the artworks. The growth of monasticism and the building of larger churches to accommodate greater audiences, placed a demand on artists of the time to develop their style and meet the needs for worshipful decoration. The vivid beauty of the artistic translation of many Christian themes would have been as breathtaking then as they are now.

Christ In Majesty, Mural, Seu d'Urgell

   The13^th Century saw the 'Romanesque' give way to the 'Gothic'. Initially, the term 'Gothic' was used to mean 'Barbaric', as many believed the style to be quite crude and not as refined or cultured as the classical art that had gone before. Gothic art is very often associated with the many beautiful cathedrals built during the time, such as the Notre Dame de Paris, which is probably the most well known example. Today, visitors to France can still witness the splendour of many more cathedrals of the Gothic style, in Lyon, Amiens and Bourges to name but a few. The Gothic art movement was also bolstered and allowed to flourish with the commissions received from many wealthy patrons who wished to decorate their domestic environments with this spectacular art.

 

Melencolia I, Engraving, Albrecht Durer, 1514 

   Lastly, we arrive at the art style known as Insular, which we will be looking at in a bit more depth here. Insular art takes its name from the the Latin word 'insula', meaning island. This refers to the fact that the style originated in Ireland (that much loved island to the west of Britain) around the 7^th century. The art form then moved and was developed further in Britain, before moving on to mainland Europe. This pattern of movement was that of the monks and scholars from Ireland and Great Britain who made their missionary journeys, taking their scripts and artwork with them in the form of their Bibles and their manuscripts. Insular art (also known as Hiberno-Saxon art) is quite distinctly different from the other Medieval styles, with Insular art seeming to favour abstraction, intricate patterns and the use of vivid colour. It was undoubtedly influenced by earlier Celtic art, reflected in its use of geometric patterns, knotwork and labyrinthian detail. The Book of Kells is possibly the most famous example of this art form. 
 

The Book Of Kells, Opening Page of the Gospel of Mark

   The Book of Kells is an 'illuminated' manuscript written in Latin, and contains the four Gospels of the new testament. The term 'illuminated' refers to the use of gold and bright colours to decorate the illustrations and script within, giving a sense of brightness and radiance. This amazing book is believed to have been produced by monastic scribes around 800 A.D. (give or take a few years). Legibility of these documents was improved by the inclusion of spacing between letters, which also helped increase the impact of the text. The Book of Kells is such an important and treasured example of Insular art, and it is one of only a few remaining manuscripts in such good condition. The book is a stunning work of art, with every page having been given immense care and meticulous attention to detail. The pages are made of vellum (calfskin), and six hundred and eighty of the original pages have survived to this day. Of these, only two lack any decoration, with all the others having several illustrations and designs worked into them. These designs are complex and highly detailed, with many requiring magnification to see clearly. Throughout the book, ten different dyes are used to colour the decoration. Some of these dyes were very expensive and hard to come by at the time. One such example is the blue pigment obtained from Lapis Lazuli, which had to come all the way from Afghanistan

 

The Book Of Kells, Chi Ro Monogram

   The Book of Kells is thought to have been created by the monastic community on the Isle of Iona, off the west coast of Scotland. Some believe it was made to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Saint Columba's death (circa 597). During Viking raids on the island and the surrounding isles which took place at the end of the 8th century, many (if not all) of the monks fled for safety to Ireland, taking the Book with them along with any other treasured items for safekeeping. They settled in Kells, county Meath, Ireland, where an abbey had been founded by Saint Columba (circa 554 A.D.). In the relative safety of their new home, work continued on the Book of Kells. The Book then remained at Kells until the 1650's, thereby cementing its title through association with the area. Upon arrival of Oliver Cromwell's troops to the area at that time it was felt necessary to move the Book to Dublin for safekeeping. In 1661, the Book of Kells ended its journey at Trinity College, Dublin where it has remained ever since.

The Book Of Kells, Illustration

   In conclusion, the Middle Ages was a period rich with distinctive art and artistic styles, spanning hundreds of years. Whilst dubbed by some as the 'Dark Ages', the Medieval era was anything but 'dark', producing many spectacular and extraordinary works of art and architecture during this time. The varied styles coming out of this period, continued to influence later forms which followed, and the many artefacts that have survived since, are seen as being truly significant in both the historical and aesthetical sense.

As usual, here are some useful links: 

 The Book Of Kells Online

 Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic Art

 History of the Byzantine Empire 

 Medieval Art 

 

(All pictures used are the copyright of the relevant owners. No copyright infringement intended.)

What The Futhark?!

   In reality, very little exists of the written form of many ancient languages. Of those that do exist, and can be understood by the modern scholar, one such is the Futhark, the ancient Runic alphabet and language system of many of our Nordic ancestors.
 
    Runes have been found to have been used all across Europe, Britain, Scandinavia, Iceland, and even parts of North America. Today, Runes are considered as mysterious and cryptic symbols by many, with connotations towards mysticism, magic and the occult. This mostly occurs because of the fact that it is no longer used, and therefore not as commonplace as it once was. In this post we are going to have a short look into the history of Runes, and its descendant scripts.
 
   The earliest example of Runes appeared around AD150. This form is also known as the 'Elder Futhark'. The name 'Futhark' comes from the first six characters in the set – fuxark, hence the name. The Futhark originated in parts of Europe that were home to Germanic tribes, who developed the Runes as a writing system. It is thought that the Elder Futhark originated from the 'Old Italic' script, which itself was derived from the Phoenician alphabet. The link between them does seem to suggest a relationship between the three, and they share some similar features. This form consists of 24 Runes, as shown below. 

 
   Sometime during the 5^th Century AD, changes occurred to the Runic alphabet, which was partly related to the invasions in parts of Britain and Germany (At the time, known as 'Frisia') by the Anglo-Saxons. It was these invasions that possibly brought the Rune as a form of writing to Britain. This form is known as the 'Anglo-Saxon Futhorc'. This Futhorc brought along with it changes and additions to the existing series of Runes, with the total rising to 29 Runes, and with some of the existing Runes having their sounds and forms changed. The name changed from 'Futhark' to 'Futhorc' as a result to the changes that occurred within the system. 

 
   Around the 9^th Century, a newer, younger form of Runes emerged – 'Younger Futhark', also known as 'Scandinavian Futhark', which was a simplified version of the Elder Futhark, now stripped down consisting of only 16 characters. This change occurred when the Norse language developed into what is known as 'Old Norse'. The forms of the Runes in the Younger Futhark were simplified, and some Runes came to represent several sounds. This version of Rune was spread around by the movement of the Vikings, into areas such as Greenland, and it is also believed that they brought Runes to North America.

   In the 12^th Century, The Younger Futhark was once again bolstered to contain one sign for each character of the language. Dotted variant Runes were added to expand the range of sounds that the Runes covered. This style of Rune is known as the 'Medieval Runes' and was used from the 12^th to the 15^th century, in the Middle Ages.

   Whilst the Futhark was still in popular use up until even the 19^th century, the rise and spread of the Latin alphabet caused a decrease in the use of Futhark, due to many cultures adopting the newer alphabet. The Latin alphabet started to move into Britain in the 9^th century, with the later Norman Conquest later cementing the change. Futhark carried on to be used much longer in Scandinavia, however eventually it fell out of popular use, again in favour of the Latin alphabet.
 
   Today, Runes are now mainly a thing of study for scholars and archaeologists, and are still used for their aesthetic value in decorative ventures. There have been a few recurrences of the Runes being readopted, with the 'Gothicismus' movement occurring in Scandinavia in the 19^th century, and Germanic Neopagaism of the 20^th century, where the Rune was reused alongside other traditional German aspects.
 
   The Runes were a beautiful method of communication, which served a practical purpose whilst also looking very distinct and striking. The angular nature of the runes and their simplicity is something I find very captivating, and the slight mysterious aspect that they hold is an alluring feature of them for many. Just imagine, what if we had not adopted the Latin alphabet? What if Runes were still used as our means of writing? Its a funny thought, and one worth thinking about for a minute.


Lastly, here are some fun links to more content on Runes, should you wish to explore them a bit more.
Introduction to Runes 
Runes
Old Italic Script
Gothicismus
Germanic Neopaganism
Viking Runes
Frisia

Fragments of Feeling

During our time spent learning about Semiotics, I learned that it applies to sounds as well. A sort of Sonic Semiotics if you will. Specifically, we will be taking a short look into musical sampling, and how it can relate to the field in question.

Musical sampling refers to the process of taking a sound sample from a pre-existing recording, and then using it in some form in a different song. Therefore, when sampling, some of the characteristics and associated icons of the track will carry over to the new recording. The process of sampling older records can lead to continuing an existing signification due to the recycling of the clip used.

Here is a great example, and a chance for me to wax lyrical about one of my favourite musical acts, Daft Punk. The French duo are known for their use of sampling in their records, especially in their album Discovery, which is heavily sampled throughout.
Here is the track High Life, which I believe to be one of the best uses of sampling in their records:

The track uses a sample of Tavares – Break Down For Love, which can be heard right from the start of the track. Now, unless you are familiar with the sampled track, it would be easy to hear these clipped sounds and not make the connection about where they came from. The way that Daft Punk have rearranged the sample makes it so that it is quite distinctly different from the original source. You could easily be forgiven for not recognising it as a sample at all, given the production quality.

Now Daft Punk's handling of this sample is basically a use of existing signification. They have alluded to Break Down For Love, without overtly revealing itself as having referenced them. In doing so, they have made a hidden link to the icons of the past, an homage to the music that was popular and loved by the duo as children. Myself, having listened to the track for years before, only recently learned the origin of the sample used.

The funny thing is that now I believe the song itself is a musical symbol and icon. Daft Punk have become famous for their unique sound, with many of their tracks having become classics, and as such, I think that the song is both referencing an existing signification, whilst also becoming its own. The use of sampling older records brings a nostalgic edge to the music for listeners that remember those times, whilst younger listeners will discover new music from the past, should they choose to investigate into the samples used.

To conclude, musical sampling can be used to reference music and symbols from the past, and use them to open a window into icons and inspirations from times gone by. The origin of where samples come from is something which I find very stimulating, as for me it adds a whole new dimension to the music that I love. It brings a new story to the song, as I can sit and wonder why they chose a certain record to sample, or what clicked in their head to figure out where to cut and rearrange sounds to produce the sonic alchemy that ends up in their recordings. 

If you want to look further into the use of sampling in songs, check this site out: 

WhoSampled.com

Time O' The Signs

Every day, we see loads of symbols. We see them everywhere, and they are so commonplace that usually we don't even notice them. However, within your mind, you are subconsciously interpreting these signs and their meaning. Your brain needs to recognise these signs, understand the context in which they are being presented, and then deal with it accordingly. The attempt to categorise and understand this process is known as Semiotics.

Semiotics is basically the fancy way to say 'the study of signs'. The concept was first dreamt up by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 – 1913). He wrote of a science 'which studies the role of signs as part of social life' . Saussure believed that research into the meanings of these signs and symbols was an important part of figuring out some of the processes that occur within our mind when dealing with signs.

In the early days of Semiotics, Saussure created a model that states what makes a sign. It was in two parts. First came the 'Signifier', which is the form that the sign takes, and secondly, the 'Signified', which is the concept that it represents. Combine the two, and you have a sign. In the more modern interpretation of this method, the signifier is now known as the material i.e. physical form of the sign, something which exists and can be seen or felt.

Modern approaches to the field draw upon the work and ideas of the key figures in the subject, Ferdinand de Saussure, Charles Sanders Pierce, and Umberto Eco. The approach commonly used today lists signs as existing within three different forms:

Firstly, we have the Symbol, were the sign has broken any conventional ties with reality, and its form has moved into the realm of abstraction. Symbols require knowledge about how they connect to the signified, as in you must understand the relationship between the two. To demonstrate this, I went on a photographic expedition to gather some examples to show you. Here are some Symbols. 

 

Secondly, comes the Index, which is directly connected in some way to the signified. This is one of the harder concepts to wrap your head around. A great example we were given in our lecture is that smoke is an index to fire, a signal which tells of the Signified. Take a look at a sample of some Index's.

Lastly, we have the Icon. For something to be an Icon, it must resemble or imitate the signified. It needs to share some of the quality’s of the signified, usually visually, but also in other ways, such as how something sounds, or feels. Icons can also be illustrative or representational, such as a photograph. To help visualise this, here are some examples I found earlier.

I must point out that I have barely scratched the surface of Semiotics in my short dialogue here. There is quite a bit of history to consider with this subject, and lots of research and information that I cant really cover here without this turning into a rambling history lesson. Its worth reading a bit more on Saussure, Pierce, and Eco, if this Semiotics stuff floats your boat. I found it to be an interesting concept to consider and read into a little bit, but personally I can't see myself losing too much sleep over the subject in the future. 

Here are some links to further reading on the subject:

Semiotics For Beginners 
Ferdinand de Saussure
Charles Sanders Peirce 
Umberto Eco